Ottoman History \ 1-1
The city of Jerusalem, which is considered sacred by Muslims, Christians and Jews, dates back to BC. It has an ancient history dating back to the 4000s. The dominance of states belonging to these religions in Jerusalem for different periods paved the way for the formation of holy places belonging to three religions in the city.
Various zoning activities carried out by the state in Jerusalem, which came under Ottoman rule in 1517, increased the quality of life of the city. One of the breaking points for Jerusalem in this period of domination that lasted until 1917 was the process that started with the French occupation of Egypt in 1798 and continued until the end of the Kavalalı Mehmed Ali Pasha rebellion in 1841. The emergence of the troubles in different parts of the state, such as the Wahhabi and Greek rebellions, in this time period, caused Jerusalem to be indirectly affected by these events, since it hosted different nations together.
In this study, which deals with the policy of the Ottoman Empire in Jerusalem between 1798-1841, the political events and administrative changes, the prominent activities in the approach of the state to Muslims, the rights granted by the state to non-Muslims and the ways of communication of the people with the state are examined.
Various zoning activities carried out by the state in Jerusalem, which came under Ottoman rule in 1517, increased the quality of life of the city. One of the breaking points for Jerusalem in this period of domination that lasted until 1917 was the process that started with the French occupation of Egypt in 1798 and continued until the end of the Kavalalı Mehmed Ali Pasha rebellion in 1841. The emergence of the troubles in different parts of the state, such as the Wahhabi and Greek rebellions, in this time period, caused Jerusalem to be indirectly affected by these events, since it hosted different nations together.
In this study, which deals with the policy of the Ottoman Empire in Jerusalem between 1798-1841, the political events and administrative changes, the prominent activities in the approach of the state to Muslims, the rights granted by the state to non-Muslims and the ways of communication of the people with the state are examined.
According to French Traveler and Diplomat Édouard Antoine Thouvenel THE OTTOMAN STATE IN THE CENTURY
Edouard Antoine Thouvenel, who came to the Ottoman lands first as a traveler and then as a French ambassador (1855-1860), contributed to the preparation process of the Reform Edict as the father of the French thesis. In addition, by personally participating in the activities with other diplomats, he fulfilled a mission that recorded the influence of France in the Ottoman Empire. Indeed, Istanbul was at the center of alliances or conflicts between all state institutions and organizations and Western states. During this period, the most experienced, well-equipped and cunning diplomats of France, England and Russia served in Istanbul and there was a fierce struggle between them. Although he was at odds with the British ambassador Lord Stratford and the Russian ambassador General Ignatyf, who conducted diplomacy with different methods, Thouvenel successfully conducted the negotiations on behalf of France.
Thouvenel was in constant contact with the Sublime Porte and Abdülmecid. In line with the instructions he received from France, he had Reşid Pasha dismissed by following an oppressive attitude and had the pro-French Ali Pasha and Fuad Pasha sometimes appointed to the grand vizierate and sometimes to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. He realized the theses of France with his effective diplomacy, which he carried out in the special Divan-ı elections, which were of vital importance in the Wallachia-Boğdan issue. Thouvenel is again on the diplomatic side of the Suez Canal project under the direction of French engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps, which will provide prestige for his country in the East, require serious engineering and will connect the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, which angered the British. In addition, the Légion d'honneur, which no Ottoman sultan had accepted before, was given to Abdülmecid with a magnificent ceremony in Çırağan by Thouvenel, and the Sultan attended a ball at the French Embassy for the first time.
Thouvenel, who continued his activities silently for five years without making as much noise as his rival Stratford, in Istanbul, III. While he was Napoleon's ambassador in Istanbul who started the French era, he returned to Paris as the Minister of Foreign Affairs who directed the French foreign policy.
Thouvenel was in constant contact with the Sublime Porte and Abdülmecid. In line with the instructions he received from France, he had Reşid Pasha dismissed by following an oppressive attitude and had the pro-French Ali Pasha and Fuad Pasha sometimes appointed to the grand vizierate and sometimes to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. He realized the theses of France with his effective diplomacy, which he carried out in the special Divan-ı elections, which were of vital importance in the Wallachia-Boğdan issue. Thouvenel is again on the diplomatic side of the Suez Canal project under the direction of French engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps, which will provide prestige for his country in the East, require serious engineering and will connect the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, which angered the British. In addition, the Légion d'honneur, which no Ottoman sultan had accepted before, was given to Abdülmecid with a magnificent ceremony in Çırağan by Thouvenel, and the Sultan attended a ball at the French Embassy for the first time.
Thouvenel, who continued his activities silently for five years without making as much noise as his rival Stratford, in Istanbul, III. While he was Napoleon's ambassador in Istanbul who started the French era, he returned to Paris as the Minister of Foreign Affairs who directed the French foreign policy.
LIGHT from the British Ottoman Prisoner Camp in Egypt to the Past, Present, and Tomorrow (1919-1920)
One of the camps in Egypt, where the soldiers of the Ottoman Army, who fought on the fronts of the First World War, and the soldiers who were taken prisoner by the British, were kept, is the "Tura Prisoner Camp" near Cairo. The war ended in 1919, but the captives could not be released yet.
In the camp, the captive Turkish officers, who are not detached from the world, publish a handwritten newspaper in order to protect their resistance, to make evaluations to prepare today for tomorrow, to keep the struggle for freedom and patriotism mentally, even though they are in captivity financially: LIGHT!
To live is to build tomorrow today, not yesterday. Those in the camp are also conscious of this. “It should not be forgotten that people who look at the ukba rather than the world; They neglect their welfare between the cradle and the grave.” The intact bodies of those found in Tura are the most valuable gift for "the homeland whose cemeteries have increased and its vigor has decreased". "Life; It is not just a heavy ordeal that ends in death, as we understand it.” Turkish soldiers living in captivity, the Turkish Nation "If it was defeated in China, it was defeated in India. If he left Turan, he entered Iran. If it sank in Persia, it came out in Byzantium." they know the truth. They have to create a happy tomorrow out of a great disaster.
To be defeated is not to die. Those who are imprisoned behind the fence in Tura are the life of tomorrow. Them; “They are the lights of a poor land.” They cannot waste their time in captivity in vain, they cannot laugh and have fun. “A generation that does not think about tomorrow in every minute that interferes with the past; It is not capable of standing up cross-legged beings.”
LIGHT; “Phoenix” reborn after a century from the ashes of captivity…
In the camp, the captive Turkish officers, who are not detached from the world, publish a handwritten newspaper in order to protect their resistance, to make evaluations to prepare today for tomorrow, to keep the struggle for freedom and patriotism mentally, even though they are in captivity financially: LIGHT!
To live is to build tomorrow today, not yesterday. Those in the camp are also conscious of this. “It should not be forgotten that people who look at the ukba rather than the world; They neglect their welfare between the cradle and the grave.” The intact bodies of those found in Tura are the most valuable gift for "the homeland whose cemeteries have increased and its vigor has decreased". "Life; It is not just a heavy ordeal that ends in death, as we understand it.” Turkish soldiers living in captivity, the Turkish Nation "If it was defeated in China, it was defeated in India. If he left Turan, he entered Iran. If it sank in Persia, it came out in Byzantium." they know the truth. They have to create a happy tomorrow out of a great disaster.
To be defeated is not to die. Those who are imprisoned behind the fence in Tura are the life of tomorrow. Them; “They are the lights of a poor land.” They cannot waste their time in captivity in vain, they cannot laugh and have fun. “A generation that does not think about tomorrow in every minute that interferes with the past; It is not capable of standing up cross-legged beings.”
LIGHT; “Phoenix” reborn after a century from the ashes of captivity…
Throughout history, the Middle East has never lost its charm due to its strategic location and the political and economic expectations of global powers. The Middle East, which experienced a stable period during the rule of the Ottoman Empire (1517-1917), first came under the control of England and France with the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire at the end of the First World War, and then the USSR and the USA during the "Cold War" Period. It has been a field of contention in the political and military fields of the United States.
This second book, which was prepared as a continuation of the previous book "Middle East Perspective I", sheds light on the history of the Middle East, again with the contributions of many academicians, on the political, military and economic events experienced by the Middle East countries in the historical process.
This second book, which was prepared as a continuation of the previous book "Middle East Perspective I", sheds light on the history of the Middle East, again with the contributions of many academicians, on the political, military and economic events experienced by the Middle East countries in the historical process.
Written by Mahmut Şevket Pasha, illustrated by the Naval Ministry painter Hüseyin Hüsnü (Töngüz) Efendi, this work, consisting of three volumes and an addendum, named Ottoman Organization and Dress-i Military, is both military and military work from the foundation of the Ottoman Empire to its last period. He examines in great detail the organization of the military, as well as military outfits, which are not found in almost any other source. The first volume of the work covers the period from the establishment of the Ottoman Empire to the abolition of the Janissary Corps, the second volume covers the period from the establishment of the Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye Army to 1876, and the third volume covers the period between 1876-1903. The appendix to the work includes some partial changes made after 1903.
The first two volumes of the work, the third volume and the appendix, which were printed in the Mekteb-i Harbiye Printing House in 1909, were not published during the period, probably because they contain information about the current military organization. This part of the work, which includes the period of Sultan Abdulhamid, is also of great importance in that it covers a period in which the military organization developed tremendously. Mahmut Şevket Pasha, in the preface of the first edition, wishes that this last volume will be published in the future, and with this publication, we are fulfilling the will of Pasha a hundred years ago.
We hope that this magnificent work, which we have transferred from the manuscript copy containing all the volumes in the Rare Works Library of Istanbul University, to today's alphabet by being faithful to the language of the period, will be a source for detailed researches of history researchers.
The first two volumes of the work, the third volume and the appendix, which were printed in the Mekteb-i Harbiye Printing House in 1909, were not published during the period, probably because they contain information about the current military organization. This part of the work, which includes the period of Sultan Abdulhamid, is also of great importance in that it covers a period in which the military organization developed tremendously. Mahmut Şevket Pasha, in the preface of the first edition, wishes that this last volume will be published in the future, and with this publication, we are fulfilling the will of Pasha a hundred years ago.
We hope that this magnificent work, which we have transferred from the manuscript copy containing all the volumes in the Rare Works Library of Istanbul University, to today's alphabet by being faithful to the language of the period, will be a source for detailed researches of history researchers.
The Ottomans managed to maintain their unity and integrity in three continents by establishing and administering one of the longest-lived states in the world, in a geography known as the old world continents. It would be a wrong approach to base this success only on military power. Because the Ottoman Empire was able to maintain its existence for about three more centuries after losing its military power. So, to understand this, “How did the Ottomans provide peace and prosperity in the Middle East, the Balkans and the Caucasus, where turmoil is dominant today?” The answer to the question must be sought. Thus, it will be possible to find clues on how to improve the relations of societies with different cultures and beliefs with each other and how to achieve peace.
The Ottoman State showed the sensitivity of managing the beliefs and values of its people with different origins, beliefs and cultural characteristics, rather than interfering and preventing them. The most important aim of the state was to ensure peace and tranquility through the society's coexistence within the framework of mutual respect. For this reason, he developed a management model called the "Ottoman Nation System" and accepted different religions as interlocutors before the newly established religious institutions and leaders to represent them. The Ottoman State connected the Orthodox Christian people and especially other Christian elements in the Balkans to the Fener Greek Patriarchate, the Armenian people to the Armenian Patriarchate, and the Jewish people to the religious leader known as the Chief Rabbi and ruled through them. According to this, the leader of each congregation was obliged to collect the tax that his congregation had to pay, to deliver it to the treasury and to ensure that the members of the congregation comply with the laws set by the state. On the other hand, the state did not interfere with the religious and cultural lives of the communities by leaving them free in their own internal order.
The Ottoman State showed the sensitivity of managing the beliefs and values of its people with different origins, beliefs and cultural characteristics, rather than interfering and preventing them. The most important aim of the state was to ensure peace and tranquility through the society's coexistence within the framework of mutual respect. For this reason, he developed a management model called the "Ottoman Nation System" and accepted different religions as interlocutors before the newly established religious institutions and leaders to represent them. The Ottoman State connected the Orthodox Christian people and especially other Christian elements in the Balkans to the Fener Greek Patriarchate, the Armenian people to the Armenian Patriarchate, and the Jewish people to the religious leader known as the Chief Rabbi and ruled through them. According to this, the leader of each congregation was obliged to collect the tax that his congregation had to pay, to deliver it to the treasury and to ensure that the members of the congregation comply with the laws set by the state. On the other hand, the state did not interfere with the religious and cultural lives of the communities by leaving them free in their own internal order.
The concept of mukâtaa is used to express practices that have different legal consequences in foundation law, as in Ottoman financial law. In this study, the focus is mainly on the practice of mukataa, which means renting the foundation land to anyone who wants to build a building or plant a tree, with the right of decision and ownership of it. The foundations of the mukâtaa practice date back to before the Ottoman Empire, and the Ottomans further developed this practice, which they inherited, with some arrangements and used it for centuries. However, Ottoman lawyers, who saw that the mukâtaa practice caused the abuse of foundations over time, did not insist on this practice, on the contrary, they developed the more advantageous icâreteyn practice for foundations. This shows that mukataa paved the way for the practice of icareteyn. In this book, the historical background, nature, different practices, conditions, legal principles and rights of the mukataa contract in the 16th and 17th centuries have been tried to be revealed, especially based on fatwa journals and sharia registers.
Although the research on Ottoman science in Turkey is carried back to 1955 academically, it is still very new. For the last 20 years or so, important studies have been carried out on Ottoman science, and with these studies, general opinions about Ottoman science have gradually changed. In particular, the Ottomans did not follow the West sufficiently, and the evaluations made only by looking at the innovation movements are far from drawing the general framework of Ottoman science. Studies of the history of science show us that the success of civilizations is largely dependent on scientific and cultural movements. In this sense, it is impossible to say that the Ottoman Empire, which managed to become a 600-year-old world empire, failed in science. This book, which we call Science and Technology in the Ottomans, is a study that compiles the researches of science historians working in this field in Turkey and consists of some published articles. The aim of the study is to convey the researches and results in this field to the general reader. Science and Technology in the Ottomans consists of three main parts. The first chapter contains general writings on Ottoman science and is titled An Overview of Science and Philosophy. The second part is devoted to the subject of Mathematical Sciences (Mathematics, Astronomy and Physics) in the Ottomans. The third part includes the subjects of Geography, Geology, Medicine and Technology in the Ottomans.
ow much are we aware thet the secret of the Ottoman Empire's success in spreading three continents lies within the well-thought, planned and realized organizationsas as much as the valour and braveness?
Years long archive researches provides countless information for us to imagine this campaign organized in 1711 with its all.
...from the official war declaration following the opinion-taking meetings of the Sultan to the imperial orders issued to initiate the preparations on the campaign route...
...from ovens constructed in each range where the army would take a break to be able to provide them with fresh bread to the buzcus who would start to serve at the end of the winter season in order to keep foods and beverages cold...
...from seeing janissaries off from Istanbul with festivals to the arrival of the soldiers coming from numerous states at the determined points...
Briefly, as discovering the “Secret of the Ottoman Victories”, this book presents an alive panorama of a forgotten world.
Years long archive researches provides countless information for us to imagine this campaign organized in 1711 with its all.
...from the official war declaration following the opinion-taking meetings of the Sultan to the imperial orders issued to initiate the preparations on the campaign route...
...from ovens constructed in each range where the army would take a break to be able to provide them with fresh bread to the buzcus who would start to serve at the end of the winter season in order to keep foods and beverages cold...
...from seeing janissaries off from Istanbul with festivals to the arrival of the soldiers coming from numerous states at the determined points...
Briefly, as discovering the “Secret of the Ottoman Victories”, this book presents an alive panorama of a forgotten world.
It has been 95 years since the Sheikh Said incident, which left its mark on a period in the history of the Republic of Turkey. The court records regarding this incident, which are in the archives of the Turkish Grand National Assembly, have remained closed until recently; It could not be examined by researchers other than those with special permission.
This book is the translation of the judgment number 69. Decision numbered 366 pages in Ottoman Turkish, which is among the files of the Independence Court. Therefore, in this book, there are translations of the statements and defenses of 92 people who were tried in the same case with him within the scope of the Sheikh Said incident, more than a hundred letters presented to the court as evidence and read in the court, and some reports.
While translating the documents in the book, no simplification has been made in order not to harm the originality of the text and to make it a text that can be used safely by those who will do research on this subject. In addition, the causes, effects, etc. of the incident in the book. not entered into the analysis; No evaluation has been made regarding the members of the court committee and the excused.
This book is the translation of the judgment number 69. Decision numbered 366 pages in Ottoman Turkish, which is among the files of the Independence Court. Therefore, in this book, there are translations of the statements and defenses of 92 people who were tried in the same case with him within the scope of the Sheikh Said incident, more than a hundred letters presented to the court as evidence and read in the court, and some reports.
While translating the documents in the book, no simplification has been made in order not to harm the originality of the text and to make it a text that can be used safely by those who will do research on this subject. In addition, the causes, effects, etc. of the incident in the book. not entered into the analysis; No evaluation has been made regarding the members of the court committee and the excused.
…What I especially appreciate is that in the context in question, as has been done many times, we speak of the Ottoman Empire and the Armenian -whether explicitly, implicitly or indirectly- as separate or even contradictory elements, which are added to each other in the most reasonable assumption but cannot come into contact with each other sincerely. was not done. Therefore, your book fills a void. I would like to express my appreciation and congratulations for this important service and contribution to the Ottoman-Armenian common intellectual history, and I sincerely hope that your work will reach as wide a readership as possible...
prof. Dr. Boghos Levon Zekiyan
The majority of the studies on Armenians, whose experience of living together with the Turks is long, has been transformed into a field conceptualized as the Armenian Question. Therefore, Ottoman subjects of Armenian origin have been the subject of very little research outside the areas of conflict. Yıldız Deveci Bozkuş focused on a neglected phenomenon with her work. The emergence of the modern intellectual class is related to the formation of the appropriate atmosphere. The Ottoman intellectual class was also born with the formation of a suitable atmosphere with its own peculiarities. Intellectuals of Armenian origin also breathed in the same atmosphere. It can even be said that the emergence of Armenian intellectuals, rather than the intellectual development in the West, although they established a printing press centuries before the Turks, was mainly the result of the processes experienced in the Ottoman capital. In this sense, it would not be right to separate the intellectual world from the emergence and development of Ottoman-Turkish intellectuals. In this process, intellectuals of Armenian origin contributed to Turkish cultural life, which we can see as logistic support. These contributions are mostly dictionaries, music, art, etc. will appear in the fields. Yıldız Deveci Bozkuş, with her research on the people she dealt with and her works, has taken this contribution from the level of discourse to the level that can be supported by facts, while also showing that different doors can be opened for research on Armenians.
prof. Dr. Ahmet Ozcan
This work of Yıldız Deveci Bozkuş is very important as it shows that a study on Ottoman Armenians can go far beyond the narrow frame of the 1915 events. With this comprehensive study, Bozkuş reveals the contributions of the Ottoman Armenians to the Ottoman culture and science world, and also shows that this community is an inseparable part of the Ottoman society. Compressing centuries-old intricate inter-communal relations into a few years of political/military conflict is one of the greatest weaknesses of the Armenian studies literature in Turkey. For this reason, it would not be wrong to say that this work fills an important gap in the literature.
Assoc. Dr. Mustafa Serdar Palabiyik
prof. Dr. Boghos Levon Zekiyan
The majority of the studies on Armenians, whose experience of living together with the Turks is long, has been transformed into a field conceptualized as the Armenian Question. Therefore, Ottoman subjects of Armenian origin have been the subject of very little research outside the areas of conflict. Yıldız Deveci Bozkuş focused on a neglected phenomenon with her work. The emergence of the modern intellectual class is related to the formation of the appropriate atmosphere. The Ottoman intellectual class was also born with the formation of a suitable atmosphere with its own peculiarities. Intellectuals of Armenian origin also breathed in the same atmosphere. It can even be said that the emergence of Armenian intellectuals, rather than the intellectual development in the West, although they established a printing press centuries before the Turks, was mainly the result of the processes experienced in the Ottoman capital. In this sense, it would not be right to separate the intellectual world from the emergence and development of Ottoman-Turkish intellectuals. In this process, intellectuals of Armenian origin contributed to Turkish cultural life, which we can see as logistic support. These contributions are mostly dictionaries, music, art, etc. will appear in the fields. Yıldız Deveci Bozkuş, with her research on the people she dealt with and her works, has taken this contribution from the level of discourse to the level that can be supported by facts, while also showing that different doors can be opened for research on Armenians.
prof. Dr. Ahmet Ozcan
This work of Yıldız Deveci Bozkuş is very important as it shows that a study on Ottoman Armenians can go far beyond the narrow frame of the 1915 events. With this comprehensive study, Bozkuş reveals the contributions of the Ottoman Armenians to the Ottoman culture and science world, and also shows that this community is an inseparable part of the Ottoman society. Compressing centuries-old intricate inter-communal relations into a few years of political/military conflict is one of the greatest weaknesses of the Armenian studies literature in Turkey. For this reason, it would not be wrong to say that this work fills an important gap in the literature.
Assoc. Dr. Mustafa Serdar Palabiyik